ETHNOLINGUISTIC INFLUENCE ON THE ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN NIGERIA – ASOCIOLINGUISTIC APPROACH
BY
ABDULLAHI M.S. IDIAGBON
Introduction
Nigeria is the creation of the British colonial expansion. The boundaries were mostly determined by colonial cartographers in order to eliminate friction and enhance administrative convenience rather than to satisfy or accommodate ethnic nationalities. Odumuh (1987) postulates that the various groupings, each with its own cultural and linguistic identity were never consulted before the creation of the nation state, Nigeria. In examining the Nigerians attitudes towards the English language, attempt is made to consider the link between a language and the combined factors of social identity, culture and individuality.
Evolution of English in Nigeria
The evolution of English language in Nigeria has been traced by Alabi (1994) to pre trans-Atlantic slave trade era, specifically in 1553 when some British were said to have paid what Alabi described as “very brief visits to the Nigerian coasts especially the ports of Benin and old Calabar”. The first obstacle confronted by the visitors was communication barrier between the natives and the English men. There was then a pressing need to dislodge this obstruction, hence, the need to teach the basic English for communication, business transaction, missionary activities and for other official functions.
At the initial stage, the medium of communication between the English men and the natives was English-based pidgin. Since the traders, missionaries and colonial administrators were not willing to learn the indigenous language(s), English had to be imposed and taught in order to train clerks, interpreters, stewards, messengers to help white men in administrative and domestic activities.
It is therefore evident that the cornerstone of the British introduction of the teaching of English language was not based on evolution of a “standard” English but on the emergence of a fairly communicative English. Therefore, right from the onset, there has been a basis for dialectal varieties in Nigeria spoken English.
Candidature of the English Language
Bamgbose (1987) observes that “the question whether there is a Nigerian English (as a variety of world Englishes) should at this point have become a non-issue,” given the need for its interactional and transactional roles in a multi-lingual context like Nigeria.
Lending weight to traces of ethnic markers in the spoken English of an average Nigerian, Bamgbose stresses that when two languages come into contact and one is performing an official role, such language will be influenced both culturally and linguistically in accordance with the reciprocal influence theory of language variation.
Thus, Nigerian English has come to stay as long as the official status of English in the Nigerian society is sustained. Many characteristic features of Nigerian dialectal forms of the English language exist at the syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and linguistic levels. Interestingly, these ethnic traits do not simply disappear just because a speaker is educated. This is because variation in English reveals more of cultural difference. The language, as it is now, has been ‘domesticated’ to reflect the general social context within which it functions.
Attitudes towards the English Language
Adegbija (1994) quoted Fitch and Hopper as defining language attitude simply as “the evaluative judgment about others’ speech patterns”. In other words, it is the evaluative judgment made about language (or its variety) and its speakers feared towards promoting, maintaining or planning of language, or even towards learning and teaching of language. He described attitudes as complex phenomena “which could be observable or internal, or both simultaneously, temporary or lasting, and of surface levels of deep-rooted nature”.
Nigerians’ attitude towards the status and use of the English language is ambivalent. This incompatibility in the attitude is due to the close affinity a language shares with the mind and culture. C****************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************tic activities.
It is therefore evident that the cornerstone of the British introduction of the teaching of English language was not based on evolution of a "standard" English but on the emergence of a fairly communicative English. Therefore, right from ****************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************s
se (1987) observes that “the question whether there is a Nigerian English (as a variety of world Englishes) should at this point䔠杮楬桳
English, apart from the role assigned to play, also becomes subservient to cultural milieu and its worldview. Variables like culture, worldview, among others, can affect the externalization or codification of thought(s) which a language conveys. Also, variables like religion, ideology, environment (where perhaps the speakers attend school), tribal chauvinism and its accent, considerably affect the production of sounds, use of expressions and choice of words. This is because according to Ofuokwu: (1990).
It is expected that members of an ethnic group seeking social and psycholinguistic distinctiveness (Giles, Bourhis and Tailor 1977) will invariably accentuate the ethnic markers in their speech by exhibiting remarkable speech divergence instead of “convergence”.
Since ethnic rivalry persists in Nigerian context, many ethnic groups think it is by speaking English marked by ethnosyncracies that their social identity can be safeguarded.
The speakers in this context can fit into what Odumuh categorized as ‘Educated Nigerian English’ in his typology of the Nigerian English. (Odmuh, 1998). Nigerians express very strong and positive feelings of loyalty for their indigenous languages because of their relevance to cultural and national identity. So every bit of ethnic manifestation is done sometimes deliberately and with pride. A cursory examination of ambivalent attitude towards the use of English in Nigeria can be simplified further by classifying the society into Micro and Macro societies. Micro includes federal institutions and academic environment while Macro comprises the larger societies, local or state based gatherings.
In the former, the speaking of the English language wins confidence, respect, dignity and aura of glorification for the speakers from the audience the degree of which got increased if it devoids ethnic markers. The latter represents the socio-political order and is characterized by divergent audience whose appetite for the use of English is based on socio-cultural canon. To this group, dialectal English is at par with the so-called standard English because, after all, English is principally needed for inter-personal communication, thus “nothing more, as Soyinka (1977) observes, “(other) than tool for convenience….”
Defining the vitality of ethnologuistic group, Ofuokwu quoted Giles et. al. (1979) as saying that it is “that which makes a group likely to behave as a distinctive and active collective entity in inter-grouping situations”. He further includes identity status, demography and institutional support as being supportive to ethnic vitality.
Precisely, of all the three major tribes in Nigeria, Hausa seems to be the least that attaches great importance or exerts pressure on itself in speaking British Standard English. This underscores the value attached to the duo factors of ethnicity and religion. The Hausa people do not only regard their language as a primus interpares among the Nigerian languages but also see the English language as a language of Christianity. The language is also often seen as a language of the foreigners who have come to subdue our cultural and religious institutions. More so, due to the fact that the tribe has featured or produced more political leaders in Nigeria than any other tribe, the speaking of Hausa dialectical English enjoins more recognition among many Hausa top government officials and some of their academics than other varieties. No serious attempt has been made to adopt the Received Pronunciation other than those meant for academic purpose. This variety is also favoured by the demographic strength, which ensures the highest numerical distribution of speakers throughout the country.
However, all the major tribes nurture different varieties and are mostly proud of them because of what “core values” have come to represent in socio-political system in Nigeria. Ndukwe defines core values as “those values that are regarded as forming the most fundamental components of a group culture”. These, according to him, are considered the representation of “the heartland of the ideological system” and they are symbolic of the group they represent.
In addition to the foregoing discussion on ethnic influence on the English language, the user’s communicative competence also has a role to play. The low level of education, exposure and inter-ethnic interaction also promotes the lackadaisical attitude of Nigerians towards attaining a standard form of Nigeria English.
Moreover, the few academic moves that have been made towards eradicating what is usually considered non-standard or dialectal English is often seen as shying away from a linguistic reality. Such perpetrators are, according to Alladina and Edwards (1991) “…guilty of under-estimating the potency of language (including the varieties) as a symbol of identity”.
In the Eastern part of the country, the influence of pidgin English is highly noticeable. Pidgin, for long, has been adopted as a language of inter-ethnic communication. As a result, the ‘freedom’ enjoyed in the speaking of pidgin is hereby transferred to the real English language already characterized by ethnic markers.
It should be noted that such ethnic influences are inevitable, and indeed necessary. What ethnicity and its concomitant variables tried to do is to domesticate English language for Nigerians’ convenient use.
It is also observed that the natives often reluctantly or/and cautiously use Standard English. This is because the natives perceive the so-called standard form as being too formalistic and totally foreign to the Nigerians. This ‘lack of respect’ syndrome is illustrative at the lexico-semantic level. For instance, in Yoruba, lexes like “Eyin” and “Won”, apart from being pluralistic can equally be used in singular sense to convey a referential tone in their semantic implication.
As a result of this complexity, speakers often to code-mixing. This tends to make the speakers feel at home without much attention paid to the grammatical formations.
One must equally recognised the influence of the mother tongue which serves as the pioneer language through which a child first learns to express his thoughts, feelings and experience. The English language, against this backdrop, is then viewed as not having enough expressive resources that can match any of the native languages. Since in Nigeria, mostly in Macro Society and sometimes in Micro Society (in the typologies earlier mentioned), speakers, in their daily interaction, make use of their first language. This practice has turned part and parcel of the natives who now consider it tasking to use a foreign expression called Standard English. In this regard, the English language is viewed contemptuously as a colonial stigma. Jowitt (1991) observes that most Nigerians often argue against the use of English as being a
“Language imported into Nigeria from Europe and therefore not the language in which Nigerians express their inner most thoughts…. English is an instrument of imperialism…. (and) should be replaced by an African language”.
Therefore, the best way out of this quagmire is a dialectal English which its native speakers can maneuver proverbs and idioms available, for example, in their tribal language to externalize their thoughts almost perfectly.
Dialectal English in Nigeria is also used to establish a form of informal conversational context. Speakers feel relaxed, original and natural while speaking it than when speaking rule-studded English.
One thing is however crystal clear that in spite of all the foregoing sentiments, the English language remains the only strong cord that binds Nigeria and Nigerians together irrespective of the country’s multi-cultural, multi-lingual and multi-ethnic differences. English has continued to function against all odds in various domains of life.
Characteristics of Dialectal English in Nigeria
As long as the human impulse to have a uniquely distinctive socio-cultural identity thrives, language will continue to be as diverse as those who speak it. It is these socio-cultural traits that sometimes turn to a source of worry for linguists as they seek legitimacy for such language.
Adegbija (1998) observes and gives a list of what he termed ‘problems’ arising in the use of the English language in Nigeria. In the context of this paper and the researcher’s view, they can be called the characteristics of Nigerian Dialectal English. Adegbija’s observation are summarised below. That such English
1. Could be generally intelligible but ungrammatical. For instance, can you please off the light
2. Could be meaningful in Nigerian context only. For instance small by small the small man becomes a big man.
3. Could be grammatical but adjudged hypercorrect thus rendering the statement socially unacceptable. For instance, in requesting, some might say: Would you please help me lift this load?”
4. Could be internationally unacceptable but locally intelligible. E.g How work?,
How now?.
5. Finally, it could be deviant according to native speaker norms but often unacceptable locally. For instance; “Sorry” (as an expression of sympathy for an incident not caused by the speaker)
Certain features in indigenous languages are being transferred directly into the
Nigerian English. This socio-linguistic variable considerably helps cement or consolidate
social interaction.
For instance, the forms of greeting like “Well done” and “Well seated” are commonly used. The concept of the former has been extended and made relevant to encompass certain situation not originally intended in the Standard English while the latter is a Nigerian coined lexis carried to be an English equivalent of the one in indigenous languages.
While the use of “well done” in Nigerian context is a form of greeting used as a casual greeting by a passer by for the workers on a job or who have satisfactorily completed a job, “well seated” is used to acknowledge the presence of those who are in sitting position as at the time the speaker is passing by. Usually “well seated” is used by the speaker to pay homage to those he meets sitting before he proceeds to ask for a favour.
Nigerians are fond of these greetings, according to Akere (1981) “because the English language does not possess linguistic markers for such non-occurring features, the Nigerian user of English substitutes the nearest equivalents in English for them”.
Similarly, average Nigerian speakers of the English use the expression “I am coming” in a peculiar context. Generally, Nigerians say “I am coming” when they are actually going. This is so, because such expression is available in the three major languages.
For instance Hausa says “Ina Zuwa”, Ibo “Anam abia” and Yoruba “Mo nbo (wa)”. Therefore, Nigerians found the English expression “I am coming” as a suitable and relevant equivalent, thus the cause of the direct translation from the mother tongue.
Let us consider the following common expressions in the Nigerian English and see how they are arrived at.
Nigerians common expressions and their Hausa Igbo and Yoruba geneses respectively
i. I want to give you a message (I have a message for you) = Zan ba da sako
ii. I want to enter taxi (I want to board a taxi) = Ina so in shiga mota
iii. I want to do marriage (I want to organize a marriage Ceremony) = Ina so in yi aure
(i) He has brain (He is intelligent/brilliant) = O nwere uburu
(ii) It is good the way you came now (it is good that you have come/it is good that you are present) = O di nma etu isiri bia ugbua
(iii) My stomach is paining me (I have a stomach upset) = Afo na ahim
(iv) My mother bought me market things (My mother bought me some things (items)from the market) = Nnem Zurulam ihe ahia
(i) I came down from the motor ( I alighted from the motor) = Mo so kale ninu oko naa.
(ii) Call me Jide (Call Jide for me) = Bami pe Jide
(iii) They are calling you (You are called) Won npe o.
Also co-existing with the ethnic–marked English language in Nigeria is the pidgin. In the pidgin, many ethnic markers are featured more easily at all its structural ‘levels, many a times direct indigenous lexes are used.
As earlier observed in this paper, the pride and importance attached with the English language-based pidgin is so great that even in the eastern part of the country, it is the pidgin or broken English and not the Igbo language that serves as the predominant language of communication. It even provides for them a regional lingua franca considering the diverse ethno-linguistic set-up of the region. It is also interesting that the Igbos as well as a good number of other-tribes (minor or major) use dialectal or ethnic marked English language not only at the grass root level but also in some formal events dominated by the speaker(s) tribe.
The degree of attachment demonstrated by both Igbo and Yoruba to the English language differs from that of Hausa-Fulani ethnic group. The patronage of English among the core-northerners is the least. Apart from the aforementioned sentiments on the ground, it is also the last region to have a taste of western education. On the Nigerian political scene, Hausa language is in the forefront among the indigenous languages contending for national or official status coupled with a long political dominance that lends more advantage to the socio-linguistic relevance attached to this language.
Conversely, in the western part of Nigeria, the use of Standard English is accorded utmost respect. Thus, it is evidently common to see interlocutors of the same Yoruba origin using English as a medium of communication whether in formal or informal situation. This does not however erase those ethnic traits known with Yoruba in their verbal discourse.
Conclusion
This paper has tried to launch a campaign against the discriminatory and Segregationist posture of the Standard Nigerian English in particular or the (British) Standard English in general against the dialectal varieties available in Nigeria. It advocates that in spite of the social dichotomy and accent bar inhibiting proper placement for the varieties of the Nigerian English they must be recognized as long as they are functional and socially relevant.
The complexity of studying Nigerian Standard English as a variety of the world Englishes is further exposed by the sub-varieties existing locally within the country. These regional varieties are relevant in the country’s socio- linguistic context and are relatively convenient in oral rendition than the so-called Nigerian Standard English. Not only should the recognition of these varieties be extended to socio-academic arena, efforts should also be made to lend political support to it so that consideration will be given to ethnic-based expressions used by students in examination. This, in addition, will also enrich our (Nigerians) literatures.
Bibliography
1. Adegbija, E. E. (1994) Language Attitudes in sub-Saharan Africa: A socio linguistic Overview. Clevedon Avon: Multilingual matters.
2. Adegbija (1998) “Nigerian English: Towards a Standard Variety”. A keynote address presented at the University of lllinois Urbana Champaign U. S A. on
5th - 7th November 1998.
3. Akere Funso (1981) “Socio-cultural Constraints and The Emergence of Standard Nigerian English in The Nigerian Language Teacher Lagos, National Language Center. Vol. 4 No 1.
4. Alabi, V.A. (1994) “English Language in Second LanguageContext” Olu Obafemi (ed). The English Language in Nigeria, Ibadan, Oluseyi Press.
5. Alladina Safder and Edwards Viv (1991) Multilingualism in the British Isles 2 Africa, the Middle East and Asia. London, Longman.
6. Bamgbose, Ayo (1982), “Standard Nigerian English - issue of identification”. The other Tongue” Urbana, University of Illinois Press.
7. Chumbow, Sammy (1990) “The Place of The Mother Tongue in the National Policy on Education” Emenanjo E.N. (ed) Multilingualism in Minority Languages and Language Policy in Nigeria. Central Books Limited.
8. Jowitt David (1991) Nigeria English Usage – An Introduction Ikeja Longman.
9. Littlewood William (1984) Foreign and Second Language Learning. New York Cambridge University Press
10. Odumuh, A. E. (1987) Nigerian English. Zaria ABU Press.
11. Odumuh, A. E. (1989) “The Co-existence of English and Nigerian Languages” in Ilorin Journal of Language and Literature, Department of Modern European Languages, University of Ilorin.
12. Ofuokwu, Dili (1990) “Socio-linguistic Variety and Language Planning: The Nigerian situation”. Emnanjo E.N. (ed) Multilingualism in Minority Languages and Language Policy in Nigeria. Central Books Limited.
13. Soyinka, Wole (1977) “Language As Boundary” in Language Education in Nigerian Vol. 1 Proceedings o
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mETHNOLINGUISTIC INFLUENCE ON THE ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN NIGERIA
mETHNOLINGUISTIC INFLUENCE ON THE ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN NIGERIA – ASOCIOLINGUISTIC APPROACH
Ulysses R. Gotera
Ulysses R. Gotera
ETHNOLINGUISTIC INFLUENCE ON THE ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN NIGERIA – ASOCIOLINGUISTIC APPROACH
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Wednesday, July 14, 2010
medicinal uses
Medicinal Uses
There are many hundreds of medicinal plants that can be grown in temperate climates and there are probably a great deal more with properties as yet undiscovered.
Just to look at a few of our more common herbs: thyme has been shown to slow down the ageing process by maintaining the vigor of our body cells; sage is an excellent antiseptic for treating mouth ulcers and sore throats; chamomile is a safe treatment for children’s' stomach upsets and garlic contains fungicides and is used in the treatment of Candida.
The following leaflets examine the heath and nutritional benefits of plants in more detail:
Plants for Health (Español ).
Fruit: Food of the Gods
Green Gold - The Leaves of Life!
A range of herbal leaflets written by Ken and Addy Fern are available on the Treat Yourself 2 site.
Database: Medicinal Uses
Top Rated plants. 54 plants with the most useful medicinal properties.
The Body
Ear, Nose and Throat and Eyes
• Errhine Produces sneezing. (4)
• Mouthwash Treats problems such as mouth ulcers. (10)
• Mydriatic Dilates the pupils of the eyes. (9)
• Odontalgic Treats toothache (temporary measure only) and other problems of the teeth and gums. (128)
• Ophthalmic Treats eye complaints. (261)
• Sialagogue Stimulates the secretion of saliva. (42)
• Sternutatory Promotes sneezing and nasal discharges. (20)
Chest and Lungs
• Antiasthmatic Treats asthma. (87)
• Antitussive Prevents or relieves coughing. (144)
• Decongestant Removes phlegm and mucous, especially from the respiratory system. (11)
• Demulcent Soothes, lubricates and softens irritated tissues, especially the mucous membranes. (178)
• Expectorant Clears phlegm from the chest by inducing coughing. (449)
• Pectoral Relieves respiratory diseases, a remedy for chest diseases. (178)
Heart and Blood
• Anticholesterolemic Prevents the build up of cholesterol. (45)
• Anticoagulant Removes blood clots. (22)
• Blood purifier Purifies the blood. (45)
• Blood tonic Is this any different to a blood purifier? (40)
• Cardiac Used in the treatment of heart problems. (109)
• Cardiotonic A tonic for the heart. (142)
• Haemolytic Breaks down red blood corpuscles to separate hemoglobin. (11)
• Hypoglycaemic Reduces the levels of sugar in the blood. (73)
• Hypotensive Reduces blood pressure, it is used in the treatment of high blood pressure (158)
• Vasoconstrictor Narrows the blood vessels, thereby increasing blood pressure. (24)
• Vasodilator Widens the blood vessels, thereby reducing blood pressure. (79)
Liver, Kidneys, and other internal bits
• Antibilious Corrects the secretions of bile. (7)
• Cholagogue Increases the flow of bile and its discharge from the body. (141)
• Diuretic Acts on the kidneys, promoting the flow of urine. (1010)
• Haemostatic Controls internal bleeding. (132)
• Hepatic Acts on the liver (for better or worse!). (76)
• Kidney Used in the treatment of kidney diseases (69)
• Lithontripic Removes stones from the kidney, bladder etc. (51)
Stomach
• Antacid Counters excess acidity in the stomach. (1)
• Antiemetic Prevents vomiting. (40)
• Digestive Aids digestion. (132)
• Emetic Induces vomiting. (227)
• Stomachic Aids and improves the action of the stomach. (491)
Bowles and Bladder
• Antihaemorrhoidal Treats hemorrhoids (piles). This would probably be best added to another heading. (19)
• Aperient A mild laxative. (75)
• Carminative Reduces flatulence and expels gas from the intestines. (339)
• Cathartic A strong laxative but less violent than a purgative. (90)
• Hydrogogue A purgative that causes an abundant watery discharge. (8)
• Laxative Stimulates bowel movements in a fairly gentle manner. (305)
• Purgative A drastic laxative causing a cleansing or watery evacuation of the bowels, usually with a griping pain. (167)
Nerves and Muscles
• Antispasmodic Relaxes muscular spasms and cramps, calming nervous irritation. (385)
• Nervine Stimulates and calms the nerves. (100)
Bones
• Antiarthritic Treats arthritis. (15)
• Antiinflammatory Reduces inflammation of joints, injuries etc. (203)
• Antirheumatic Treats rheumatism. (241)
Skin, Hands and Feet
• Acrid Causes heat and irritation when applied to the skin. (12)
• Antidermatosic Prevents or cures skin complaints. (1)
• Antipruritic Treats itching of the skin. (39)
• Foot care Plants that are used in various ways to treat foot problems. (13)
• Skin Plants used in miscellaneous treatments for the skin. (262)
• Vesicant A blistering agent. (9)
Sex and Repoduction
• Abortifacient Causes an abortion. (56)
• Anaphrodisiac Reduces sexual desire. (8)
• Aphrodisiac Increases the sexual appetite. (87)
• Birthing aid Used in facilitating birth, but not just to cause uterine contractions. (60)
• Contraceptive Prevents fertilization occurring in females. (70)
• Emmenagogue Promotes or increases the menstrual flow. In early stages of pregnancy it can induce an abortion. (276)
• Galactofuge Stops or reduces the flow of milk in a nursing mother. (15)
• Galactogogue Promotes the flow of milk in a nursing mother. (117)
• Infertility Used in treating problems of human fertility. (22)
• Oxytoxic Hastens parturition and stimulates uterine contractions. See also birthing aids. (40)
• Uterine tonic A tonic for the uterus. See also oxytoxic. (14)
• Women's complaints A very vague title, it deals with a miscellany of problems peculiar to the female sex. (89)
Aliments
Treatment of Wounds and Bruises
• Antiecchymotic Prevents or treats bruising. (8)
• Antiseptic Preventing sepsis, decay or putrefaction, it destroys or arrests the growth of micro-organisms. (340)
• Detergent A cleansing agent, used on wounds etc. It removes dead and diseased matter. (24)
• Disinfectant Used for cleaning wounds. (44)
• Plaster Used in the treatment of broken bones. (6)
• Poultice A moist, usually warm or hot, mass of plant material applied to the skin in the treatment of burns etc. (431)
• Salve Soothes and heals damaged skin. (143)
• Styptic An astringent that stops bleeding by contracting the blood vessels. (88)
• Vulnerary Promotes the healing of wounds. (199)
Pain Relief
• Anaesthetic Numbs the feeling in a local or general area of the body. (25)
• Analgesic Relieves pain. (244)
• Anodyne Relieves pain, it is milder than an analgesic. (288)
• Lenitive Soothing, palliative. (16)
• Narcotic Relieves pain, induces drowsiness and gives a sense of well-being. (82)
Fevers
• Antipyretic Treats fevers. See Febrifuge. (58)
• Febrifuge Reduces fevers. (641)
Infectious Diseases
• Antiperiodic Counteracts recurring illnesses such as malaria. (78)
• Antiscrophulatic Counteracts scrofula. (TB, especially of the lymph glands) (16)
• TB Plants used in the treatment of tuberculosis (54)
• VD Used in the treatment of venereal disease (93)
Bites and stings
• Antidote Counters poisoning. (134)
• Stings Used in the treatment of stings and insect bites. (61)
Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi and Parisites
• Anthelmintic Expels parasites from the gut. (207)
• Antibacterial Kills bacteria. (247)
• Antibiotic An agent that inhibits or destroys a living organism. It usually refers to bacteria or other micro-organisms and is probably synonymous with Antibacterial (20)
• Antifungal An agent that inhibits or destroys fungi. Used in the treatment of various fungal problems such as candida. (57)
• Antiviral Treats virus diseases (25)
• Parasiticide Treats external parasites such as ringworm This should perhaps be joined with Parasiticide in 'Other Uses'. (64)
• Vermifuge Expels and kills internal parasites. (156)
• Warts Used in the treatment of warts, corns etc. (53)
Cancer
• Antitumor Preventing, or effective against, tumors, it is used in the treatment of cancer. Probably synonymous with Cytotoxic. (60)
• Cancer Used in the treatment of cancer. (316)
• Cytostatic Slows or controls the growth of tumours. (12)
• Cytotoxic Destroys body cells. Used in the treatment of diseases such as cancer, where it is targeted against the cancer cells. (12)
• Resolvent Breaks down tumors. This might be placed under antitumor. (44)
Alternative
Alternative and Complementary Medicine
• Alterative Causes a gradual beneficial change in the body, usually through improved nutrition and elimination, without having any marked specific action. (130)
• Aromatherapy Plants whose essential oils are used in Aromatherapy. (37)
• Bach Plants used in the Bach flower remedies. (38)
• Homeopathy A plant used in homeopathic treatments. (132)
General Well Being
• Antiscorbutic A plant rich in vitamin C that is used to counteract scurvy. (87)
• Balsamic A healing and soothing agent. (13)
• Nutritive A food for convalescents to help restore strength. (40)
• Tonic Improves general health. Slower acting than a stimulant, it brings steady improvement. (702)
Whole Body
• Adaptogen Helps the body 'rise' to normal stress situations, thus preventing the many chronic degenerative diseases. (19)
• Deobstruent Clears obstructions from the natural ducts of the body. (48)
• Depurative Eliminates toxins and purifies the system, especially the blood. (197)
Other medicinal uses
• Antidandruff Treats dandruff. (30)
• Antihydrotic Reduces perspiration. (6)
• Antiphlogistic Reduces inflammation. (135)
• Antivinous Treats addiction to alcohol (11)
• Appetizer Improves the appetite (68)
• Aromatic Having an agreeable odour and stimulant qualities. (85)
• Astringent Produces contraction in living tissue, reducing the flow of secretions and discharges of blood, mucus, diarrhoea etc. (851)
• Bitter Increases the appetite and stimulates digestion by acting on the mucous membranes of the mouth. Also increases the flow of bile, stimulates repair of the gut wall lining and regulates the secretion of insulin and glucogen. (82)
• Deodorant Masks smells. Is this medicinal? (24)
• Diaphoretic Induces perspiration. (427)
• Emollient Softens the skin, causing warmth and moisture. (118)
• Enuresis Treats bed wetting. (7)
• Hallucinogenic Causes the mind to hallucinate. (27)
• Hypnotic Induces sleep. (68)
• Irritant Causes irritation or abnormal sensitivity in living tissue. (25)
• Miscellany Various medicinal actions that need more clarification. (192)
• Refrigerant Cools the body. (60)
• Restorative Restores consciousness or normal physiological activity. (16)
• Rubefacient A counter-irritant and external stimulant, it produces inflammation and redness of the skin. (84)
• Sedative Gently calms, reducing nervousness, distress and irritation. (301)
• Stimulant Excites or quickens activity of the physiological processes. Faster acting than a tonic but differing from a narcotic in that it does not give a false sense of well-being. (313)
• Antiaphonic Restores the voice. (8)
• Antihalitosis Treats bad breath (13)
bout Us
Plants For A Future is a resource centre for rare and unusual plants, particularly those which have edible, medicinal or other uses. We practise vegan-organic permaculture with emphasis on creating an ecologically sustainable environment based largely on perennial plants.
Please read our important disclaimer, below. Use of this website implies your understanding and acceptance of the disclaimer.
The Plants For A Future charitable company has a new management team, and we are working on plans to redevelop the Plants For A Future website and database. Some of the information on this website about the organisation is out-of-date and misleading. The database continues to be available from this site.
For further information, see: www.plantsforafuture.org.uk
• New introduction (Nederlands, Dansk).
• Old introduction (Esperanto, Italiano, Español, Francais, Nederlands, Dansk).
• Cornwall site (The Field)
• North Devon site (Blagdon Cross - now sold as a nature reserve)
A salad of edible flowers
About Plants
Just twenty plants provide the majority of food eaten, yet there are thousands of other useful plants which have not reached mainstream attention. You can find details of many of them here.
• Edible Plants Alternative Fruits, Roots, Leaves and flowers.
• Medicinal Plants
• Other Plant Uses Soap, Dyes, Lighting ...
• Top 20 Plants Some of our favourite plants
The Edible Daylily
About Gardening
We advocate a style of gardening mimicking a natural woodland system using perennial plants and following vegan organic and ecological principals
• Woodland Gardening
• Vegan Organics and conservation gardening.
• Perennial Plants
• Diverse Habitats useful plants in ponds, lawns and hedges
A woodland garden
General disclaimer
To the best of our knowledge all the information contained herein is accurate and true.
However we cannot guarantee that everyone will react positively to all edible plants or other plant uses.
It is commonly known that many people suffer allergic reactions to conventional foods and products. Even amongst the more commonly eaten fruits, for example, there are plenty of instances where people react badly to them:
• Many people are allergic to strawberries and will come out in a rash if they eat them.
• Some people develop a rash if they touch the stems of parsnips.
• Potatoes become poisonous if they turn green.
• Eating large quantities of cabbage can adversely affect the thyroid gland.
In general, we believe that the overall health of people will be greatly improved by bringing more diversity into their diet and through using more natural products.
We strongly recommend the following preventative precautions when trying anything new:
• Make sure you have identified the plant correctly
• Try a small taste of anything new in your diet. If there are no side effects increase the quantity at the next meal.
• When trying new soaps or skin applications try them on a very small area before proceeding to larger areas of the body. Look for any uncomfortable reactions or changes and if there is do not proceed with further application.
No liability exists against Plants for a Future or any member of Plants for a Future, nor can they be held responsible for any allergy, illness or injurious effect that any person or animal may suffer as a result of information in this catalogue or through using any of the plants mentioned by Plants for a Future.
Plant Database
You can search our database of 7300 edible medicinal and useful plants. If you want to use the database at home without using the internet then you can download a copy or get it on CD-ROM for a small donation to the project.
There are many hundreds of medicinal plants that can be grown in temperate climates and there are probably a great deal more with properties as yet undiscovered.
Just to look at a few of our more common herbs: thyme has been shown to slow down the ageing process by maintaining the vigor of our body cells; sage is an excellent antiseptic for treating mouth ulcers and sore throats; chamomile is a safe treatment for children’s' stomach upsets and garlic contains fungicides and is used in the treatment of Candida.
The following leaflets examine the heath and nutritional benefits of plants in more detail:
Plants for Health (Español ).
Fruit: Food of the Gods
Green Gold - The Leaves of Life!
A range of herbal leaflets written by Ken and Addy Fern are available on the Treat Yourself 2 site.
Database: Medicinal Uses
Top Rated plants. 54 plants with the most useful medicinal properties.
The Body
Ear, Nose and Throat and Eyes
• Errhine Produces sneezing. (4)
• Mouthwash Treats problems such as mouth ulcers. (10)
• Mydriatic Dilates the pupils of the eyes. (9)
• Odontalgic Treats toothache (temporary measure only) and other problems of the teeth and gums. (128)
• Ophthalmic Treats eye complaints. (261)
• Sialagogue Stimulates the secretion of saliva. (42)
• Sternutatory Promotes sneezing and nasal discharges. (20)
Chest and Lungs
• Antiasthmatic Treats asthma. (87)
• Antitussive Prevents or relieves coughing. (144)
• Decongestant Removes phlegm and mucous, especially from the respiratory system. (11)
• Demulcent Soothes, lubricates and softens irritated tissues, especially the mucous membranes. (178)
• Expectorant Clears phlegm from the chest by inducing coughing. (449)
• Pectoral Relieves respiratory diseases, a remedy for chest diseases. (178)
Heart and Blood
• Anticholesterolemic Prevents the build up of cholesterol. (45)
• Anticoagulant Removes blood clots. (22)
• Blood purifier Purifies the blood. (45)
• Blood tonic Is this any different to a blood purifier? (40)
• Cardiac Used in the treatment of heart problems. (109)
• Cardiotonic A tonic for the heart. (142)
• Haemolytic Breaks down red blood corpuscles to separate hemoglobin. (11)
• Hypoglycaemic Reduces the levels of sugar in the blood. (73)
• Hypotensive Reduces blood pressure, it is used in the treatment of high blood pressure (158)
• Vasoconstrictor Narrows the blood vessels, thereby increasing blood pressure. (24)
• Vasodilator Widens the blood vessels, thereby reducing blood pressure. (79)
Liver, Kidneys, and other internal bits
• Antibilious Corrects the secretions of bile. (7)
• Cholagogue Increases the flow of bile and its discharge from the body. (141)
• Diuretic Acts on the kidneys, promoting the flow of urine. (1010)
• Haemostatic Controls internal bleeding. (132)
• Hepatic Acts on the liver (for better or worse!). (76)
• Kidney Used in the treatment of kidney diseases (69)
• Lithontripic Removes stones from the kidney, bladder etc. (51)
Stomach
• Antacid Counters excess acidity in the stomach. (1)
• Antiemetic Prevents vomiting. (40)
• Digestive Aids digestion. (132)
• Emetic Induces vomiting. (227)
• Stomachic Aids and improves the action of the stomach. (491)
Bowles and Bladder
• Antihaemorrhoidal Treats hemorrhoids (piles). This would probably be best added to another heading. (19)
• Aperient A mild laxative. (75)
• Carminative Reduces flatulence and expels gas from the intestines. (339)
• Cathartic A strong laxative but less violent than a purgative. (90)
• Hydrogogue A purgative that causes an abundant watery discharge. (8)
• Laxative Stimulates bowel movements in a fairly gentle manner. (305)
• Purgative A drastic laxative causing a cleansing or watery evacuation of the bowels, usually with a griping pain. (167)
Nerves and Muscles
• Antispasmodic Relaxes muscular spasms and cramps, calming nervous irritation. (385)
• Nervine Stimulates and calms the nerves. (100)
Bones
• Antiarthritic Treats arthritis. (15)
• Antiinflammatory Reduces inflammation of joints, injuries etc. (203)
• Antirheumatic Treats rheumatism. (241)
Skin, Hands and Feet
• Acrid Causes heat and irritation when applied to the skin. (12)
• Antidermatosic Prevents or cures skin complaints. (1)
• Antipruritic Treats itching of the skin. (39)
• Foot care Plants that are used in various ways to treat foot problems. (13)
• Skin Plants used in miscellaneous treatments for the skin. (262)
• Vesicant A blistering agent. (9)
Sex and Repoduction
• Abortifacient Causes an abortion. (56)
• Anaphrodisiac Reduces sexual desire. (8)
• Aphrodisiac Increases the sexual appetite. (87)
• Birthing aid Used in facilitating birth, but not just to cause uterine contractions. (60)
• Contraceptive Prevents fertilization occurring in females. (70)
• Emmenagogue Promotes or increases the menstrual flow. In early stages of pregnancy it can induce an abortion. (276)
• Galactofuge Stops or reduces the flow of milk in a nursing mother. (15)
• Galactogogue Promotes the flow of milk in a nursing mother. (117)
• Infertility Used in treating problems of human fertility. (22)
• Oxytoxic Hastens parturition and stimulates uterine contractions. See also birthing aids. (40)
• Uterine tonic A tonic for the uterus. See also oxytoxic. (14)
• Women's complaints A very vague title, it deals with a miscellany of problems peculiar to the female sex. (89)
Aliments
Treatment of Wounds and Bruises
• Antiecchymotic Prevents or treats bruising. (8)
• Antiseptic Preventing sepsis, decay or putrefaction, it destroys or arrests the growth of micro-organisms. (340)
• Detergent A cleansing agent, used on wounds etc. It removes dead and diseased matter. (24)
• Disinfectant Used for cleaning wounds. (44)
• Plaster Used in the treatment of broken bones. (6)
• Poultice A moist, usually warm or hot, mass of plant material applied to the skin in the treatment of burns etc. (431)
• Salve Soothes and heals damaged skin. (143)
• Styptic An astringent that stops bleeding by contracting the blood vessels. (88)
• Vulnerary Promotes the healing of wounds. (199)
Pain Relief
• Anaesthetic Numbs the feeling in a local or general area of the body. (25)
• Analgesic Relieves pain. (244)
• Anodyne Relieves pain, it is milder than an analgesic. (288)
• Lenitive Soothing, palliative. (16)
• Narcotic Relieves pain, induces drowsiness and gives a sense of well-being. (82)
Fevers
• Antipyretic Treats fevers. See Febrifuge. (58)
• Febrifuge Reduces fevers. (641)
Infectious Diseases
• Antiperiodic Counteracts recurring illnesses such as malaria. (78)
• Antiscrophulatic Counteracts scrofula. (TB, especially of the lymph glands) (16)
• TB Plants used in the treatment of tuberculosis (54)
• VD Used in the treatment of venereal disease (93)
Bites and stings
• Antidote Counters poisoning. (134)
• Stings Used in the treatment of stings and insect bites. (61)
Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi and Parisites
• Anthelmintic Expels parasites from the gut. (207)
• Antibacterial Kills bacteria. (247)
• Antibiotic An agent that inhibits or destroys a living organism. It usually refers to bacteria or other micro-organisms and is probably synonymous with Antibacterial (20)
• Antifungal An agent that inhibits or destroys fungi. Used in the treatment of various fungal problems such as candida. (57)
• Antiviral Treats virus diseases (25)
• Parasiticide Treats external parasites such as ringworm This should perhaps be joined with Parasiticide in 'Other Uses'. (64)
• Vermifuge Expels and kills internal parasites. (156)
• Warts Used in the treatment of warts, corns etc. (53)
Cancer
• Antitumor Preventing, or effective against, tumors, it is used in the treatment of cancer. Probably synonymous with Cytotoxic. (60)
• Cancer Used in the treatment of cancer. (316)
• Cytostatic Slows or controls the growth of tumours. (12)
• Cytotoxic Destroys body cells. Used in the treatment of diseases such as cancer, where it is targeted against the cancer cells. (12)
• Resolvent Breaks down tumors. This might be placed under antitumor. (44)
Alternative
Alternative and Complementary Medicine
• Alterative Causes a gradual beneficial change in the body, usually through improved nutrition and elimination, without having any marked specific action. (130)
• Aromatherapy Plants whose essential oils are used in Aromatherapy. (37)
• Bach Plants used in the Bach flower remedies. (38)
• Homeopathy A plant used in homeopathic treatments. (132)
General Well Being
• Antiscorbutic A plant rich in vitamin C that is used to counteract scurvy. (87)
• Balsamic A healing and soothing agent. (13)
• Nutritive A food for convalescents to help restore strength. (40)
• Tonic Improves general health. Slower acting than a stimulant, it brings steady improvement. (702)
Whole Body
• Adaptogen Helps the body 'rise' to normal stress situations, thus preventing the many chronic degenerative diseases. (19)
• Deobstruent Clears obstructions from the natural ducts of the body. (48)
• Depurative Eliminates toxins and purifies the system, especially the blood. (197)
Other medicinal uses
• Antidandruff Treats dandruff. (30)
• Antihydrotic Reduces perspiration. (6)
• Antiphlogistic Reduces inflammation. (135)
• Antivinous Treats addiction to alcohol (11)
• Appetizer Improves the appetite (68)
• Aromatic Having an agreeable odour and stimulant qualities. (85)
• Astringent Produces contraction in living tissue, reducing the flow of secretions and discharges of blood, mucus, diarrhoea etc. (851)
• Bitter Increases the appetite and stimulates digestion by acting on the mucous membranes of the mouth. Also increases the flow of bile, stimulates repair of the gut wall lining and regulates the secretion of insulin and glucogen. (82)
• Deodorant Masks smells. Is this medicinal? (24)
• Diaphoretic Induces perspiration. (427)
• Emollient Softens the skin, causing warmth and moisture. (118)
• Enuresis Treats bed wetting. (7)
• Hallucinogenic Causes the mind to hallucinate. (27)
• Hypnotic Induces sleep. (68)
• Irritant Causes irritation or abnormal sensitivity in living tissue. (25)
• Miscellany Various medicinal actions that need more clarification. (192)
• Refrigerant Cools the body. (60)
• Restorative Restores consciousness or normal physiological activity. (16)
• Rubefacient A counter-irritant and external stimulant, it produces inflammation and redness of the skin. (84)
• Sedative Gently calms, reducing nervousness, distress and irritation. (301)
• Stimulant Excites or quickens activity of the physiological processes. Faster acting than a tonic but differing from a narcotic in that it does not give a false sense of well-being. (313)
• Antiaphonic Restores the voice. (8)
• Antihalitosis Treats bad breath (13)
bout Us
Plants For A Future is a resource centre for rare and unusual plants, particularly those which have edible, medicinal or other uses. We practise vegan-organic permaculture with emphasis on creating an ecologically sustainable environment based largely on perennial plants.
Please read our important disclaimer, below. Use of this website implies your understanding and acceptance of the disclaimer.
The Plants For A Future charitable company has a new management team, and we are working on plans to redevelop the Plants For A Future website and database. Some of the information on this website about the organisation is out-of-date and misleading. The database continues to be available from this site.
For further information, see: www.plantsforafuture.org.uk
• New introduction (Nederlands, Dansk).
• Old introduction (Esperanto, Italiano, Español, Francais, Nederlands, Dansk).
• Cornwall site (The Field)
• North Devon site (Blagdon Cross - now sold as a nature reserve)
A salad of edible flowers
About Plants
Just twenty plants provide the majority of food eaten, yet there are thousands of other useful plants which have not reached mainstream attention. You can find details of many of them here.
• Edible Plants Alternative Fruits, Roots, Leaves and flowers.
• Medicinal Plants
• Other Plant Uses Soap, Dyes, Lighting ...
• Top 20 Plants Some of our favourite plants
The Edible Daylily
About Gardening
We advocate a style of gardening mimicking a natural woodland system using perennial plants and following vegan organic and ecological principals
• Woodland Gardening
• Vegan Organics and conservation gardening.
• Perennial Plants
• Diverse Habitats useful plants in ponds, lawns and hedges
A woodland garden
General disclaimer
To the best of our knowledge all the information contained herein is accurate and true.
However we cannot guarantee that everyone will react positively to all edible plants or other plant uses.
It is commonly known that many people suffer allergic reactions to conventional foods and products. Even amongst the more commonly eaten fruits, for example, there are plenty of instances where people react badly to them:
• Many people are allergic to strawberries and will come out in a rash if they eat them.
• Some people develop a rash if they touch the stems of parsnips.
• Potatoes become poisonous if they turn green.
• Eating large quantities of cabbage can adversely affect the thyroid gland.
In general, we believe that the overall health of people will be greatly improved by bringing more diversity into their diet and through using more natural products.
We strongly recommend the following preventative precautions when trying anything new:
• Make sure you have identified the plant correctly
• Try a small taste of anything new in your diet. If there are no side effects increase the quantity at the next meal.
• When trying new soaps or skin applications try them on a very small area before proceeding to larger areas of the body. Look for any uncomfortable reactions or changes and if there is do not proceed with further application.
No liability exists against Plants for a Future or any member of Plants for a Future, nor can they be held responsible for any allergy, illness or injurious effect that any person or animal may suffer as a result of information in this catalogue or through using any of the plants mentioned by Plants for a Future.
Plant Database
You can search our database of 7300 edible medicinal and useful plants. If you want to use the database at home without using the internet then you can download a copy or get it on CD-ROM for a small donation to the project.
SOME ANTICANCER MEDICINAL PLANTS OF FOREIGN
SOME ANTICANCER MEDICINAL PLANTS OF FOREIGN
ORIGIN
1Department of Zoology and Biotechnology, Model Science College , Jabalpur 482 001, India
2Rinder Pest (A.H./Veterinary Department, Government of Madhya Pradesh), Jabalpur Division, Jabalpur 482 001, India
An attempt has been made to review some medicinal
This article considers 62 medicinal plants of foreign
terpenoids, flavonoids, polyphenols, alkaloids, tannins,
These phytochemicals
both non-specific and specific immunity.
origin, phytochemicals.
CANCER is the abnormal growth of cells in our bodies
their usage3.
Cancer is the second leading cause of death in America
even in India
with aging. About one out of every 14 men and women in America
time in his/her life.
The important
treating inflammatory diseases effectively, and taking nutritional
They maintain the health and
According to the estimates of the WHO, more than 80%
of a large number of the world’s population12. TraditionalIndia USA
REVIEW ARTICLES
780 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 96, NO. 6, 25 MARCH 2009USA
It is estimated that 27 million South Africans use herbalIndia
ANTICANCER MEDICINAL PLANTS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN
Data on 62 medicinal plants of foreign origin have been
Plants contain several phytochemicals, which
large amounts of vegetables and fruits can prevent the
Vegetarians have
against several rodent and human cancer cell lines40.
possess antitumour activity34. Quercetin is the major flavones
Quercetin possesses
such as caffeic, ellagic and ferulic acids, sesamol
Some medicinal plants (Table 1) have been found
vespae17–22 in gastric and liver cancers; Oldenlandia diffusa17–
and Ehrlich’s ascites sarcoma; Patrinia heterophylla and
in oesophageal cancer; Polygonum cuspidatum17–
Conclusion
Medicinal plants maintain the health and vitality of individuals,
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CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 96, NO. 6, 25 MARCH 2009 781
Table 1. Anticancer medicinal plants of foreign originamericana Agavaceae Leaf contains steroidal saponin, alkaloid, coumarin, isoflavonoid, Central America Europe
Agrimonia pilosa Rosaceae Herb contains agrimonolide, flavonoid, triterpene, tannin and coumarin China , Japan Korea , India China , Korea China , Japan , Korea Europe
Aristolochia contorta Aristolochiaceae Root and fruit contain lysicamine and oxaaporphine China , Korea Japan , Korea Europe South Africa Europe Europe China China , Japan , Korea
Whole plant contains echinopsine Korea North America China , Japan , Korea Asia ,North America Europe China , Siberia Africa ,Australia Canada , United States Africa China , Japan , Korea Africa Southwestern USA ,
Potentilla chinensis Rolsaaceae Whole plant contains gallic acid and tannin China , Japan , Korea China
Pygeum africanum Boraginaceae Bark contains phytosterol, triterpene and tannin Africa Britain China , Japan , Korea South Europe Japan , Korea
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Table 1. (Contd …)
Botanical name ofEurope Africa Europe China China , Japan China South Africa China
Sophora flavescens Fabaceae Root China China China , Korea Mongolia Northeastern USA , Europe South Europe Europe ,Australia Africa China , Japan , Korea
These medicinal plants possess good immunodeficiency
1. Estrogen and cancer website, 2006; www.womenshealth.com,
2. American Cancer Society, A biotechnology company dedicated to
3. Kathiresan, K., Boopathy, N. S. and Kavitha, S., Coastal vegetation
4. Ames
5. Koduru, S., Grierson, D. S. and Afolayan, A. J., Ethno botanicalSouth Africa
6. American Cancer Society, Facts and figures, 1999.
7. Somkumar, A. P., Studies on anticancer effects of Ocimum sanctumJabalpur
8. Pandey, Govind and Madhuri, S., Medicinal plants: better remedy
9. Rosangkima, G. and Prasad, S. B., Antitumour activity of some Dolton ’s lymphoma. Indian J. Exp. Biol., 2004, 42, 981–988.
10. Madhuri, S. and Pandey, Govind, Some dietary agricultural plants
11. Sivalokanathan, S., Ilayaraja, M. and Balasubramanium, M. P.,
12. Akerele, O., Medicinal plants and primary health care: an agenda
13. Rao, K. V. K., Schwartz, S. A., Nair, H. K., Aalinkeel, R., Mahajan,
14. Brandt, H. D., Osuch, E., Mathibe, L. and Tsipa, P., Plants associatedPretoria
15. Meyer, J. J. M., Afolayan, A. J., Taylor, M. B. and Engelbrecht,
16. Prajapati, N. D., Purohit, S. S., Sharma, A. K. and Kumar, T., AIndia
17. Mingji, Pan, Cancer Ttreatment with Fu Zheng Pei Fuzhou
18. Minyi, Chang, Anticancer Medicinal Herbs, Human Science andChangsha
19. Dewu, Han and Ruiling, Xu, Progress in the research on blood
20. Kun, Jia, Prevention and Treatment of Carcinoma in TraditionalHong Kong , 1985.
21. Hong-Yen, Hsu, Treating Cancer with Chinese Herbs, OrientalLong Beach , CA
22. Boik, J., Cancer and Natural Medicine, Oregon Princeton , MN
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23. Itokawa, H., Morita, H., Sumitomo, T., Totsuka, N. and Takeya,
24. Hedberg, I. and Stagard, F., Traditional Medicinal Plants, Ipeleng, Botswana
25. Roberts, M., Indigenous Healing Herb, Southern Book Publishers, South Africa
26. Van Wyk, B. E., Van Oudtshoorn, B. and Gercke, N., MedicinalSouth Africa , Briza, Pretoria
27. Caragay, A. B., Cancer-preventative foods and ingredients. Food
28. Steinmetz, K. A. and Potter, J. D., Vegetables, fruits and cancer,
29. Craig, W. J., Phytochemicals: Guardians of our health, 2006.
30. Langest, L., Oxidant, antioxidant and diseases prevention. ILSI Europe Concise Monograph Series, ILSI Europe/ILSI Press,Brussels
31. Wang, C. Z. et al., Steamed American Ginseng berry: Ginsenoside
32. Faried, A., Kurnia, D., Faried, L. A., Usman, N., Miyazaki
33. Eberhsrdt, M. V., Lee, C. Y. and Lui, R. H., Antioxidant activity
34. Ho, C.-T. et al., Phytochemicals in teas and rosemary and theirWashington DC
35. Zschocke, S., Rabe, T., Taylor, L. S., Jager, A. K. and Van Staden,
36. Hecht, S. S., Kenney, P. M., Wang, M., Trushin, N., Agrawal, S.,
37. Agrawala, S. K., Chatterjee, S. and Misra, S. K., Immune potentiation
38. Vecchia, C. L. and Tavani, A., Fruits, vegetables, and human cancer.
39. Armstrong, B. K., Brown, J. B. and Clarke, H. T., Diet and reproductive
40. Lin, Y. L., Juan, I. M., Chen, Y. L., Liang, Y. C. and Lin, J. K.,
41. Heber, D., Vegetables, fruits and phytoestrogens in the prevention
42. Kaur, C. and Kapoor, H. C., Antioxidants activity and total phenolic
43. Smith, T. J. and Yang, C. S., Effects of food phytochemicals or
I. Fruits and Vegetables (eds Huang, M. J. et al.), ACS, Washington DC
44. Decker, E. A., The role of phenolics, conjugated linoleic acid,
Received 30 July 2007; revised accepted 29 January 2009
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